Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore (English: Republic of Singapore; Malay: Republik Singapura; Tamil: சிங்கப்பூர் குடியரச), also known as the Lion City, Po County, Xingzhou, or Xingguo, is an island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It is located approximately one degree of latitude (137 kilometers or 85 miles) north of the equator, south of the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, with the Strait of Malacca to the west, the Singapore Strait to the south, the South China Sea to the east, and the Strait of Johor to the north. The country’s territory consists of one main island, 63 islets, and an outlying islet; the combined area of these has increased by 25% since the country’s independence, due to extensive land reclamation projects. Despite having many green spaces and recreational areas, it has the world’s third-highest population density, a result of urban planning. Singapore has a multicultural population and recognizes the cultural identities of the country’s major ethnic groups, with four official languages—English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. English is the lingua franca and is widely used in many public service areas. Multiracialism is enshrined in the constitution and continues to shape national policies in education, housing, and politics.
Singapore’s history dates back at least a millennium, having been a maritime emporium known as Temasek and a significant component of several successive thalassocratic empires. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a trading post of the British Empire. In 1867, the colonies in Southeast Asia were reorganised and Singapore came under the direct control of Britain as part of the Straits Settlements. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan in 1942, and returned to British control as a separate crown colony following Japan’s surrender in 1945. Singapore gained self-governance in 1959 and in 1963 became part of the new federation of Malaysia, alongside Malaya, North Borneo, and Sarawak. Ideological differences, especially the egalitarian “Malaysian Malaysia” political ideology led by Lee Kuan Yew, seen as an infringement on the bumiputera and Malay-dominant policies, led to Singapore’s expulsion from the federation two years later; Singapore became an independent sovereign nation in 1965.
After experiencing early years of turbulence and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, Singapore rapidly developed to become one of the Four Asian Tigers. The nation’s growth was based on international trade and economic globalisation, integrating itself with the world economy through free trade with minimal or no trade barriers or tariffs, export-oriented industrialisation, and the large accumulation of foreign direct investment, foreign-exchange reserves, and assets held by sovereign wealth funds. As a highly developed country, Singapore has the second-highest GDP per capita (PPP) in the world. Considered a tax haven, Singapore is the only country in Asia with a AAA sovereign credit rating from all major rating agencies. It is a major aviation, financial, and maritime shipping hub, and has consistently been ranked as one of the most expensive cities to live in for expatriates and foreign workers. Singapore ranks highly in key social indicators: education, healthcare, quality of life, personal safety, infrastructure, and housing, with a home-ownership rate of 89.3% (as of 2022). Singaporeans enjoy one of the world’s longest life expectancies, fastest Internet connection speeds, lowest infant mortality rates, and lowest levels of corruption.
Singapore is a unitary parliamentary republic with a parliamentary system, and its legal system is based on common law. While the country is a multi-party democracy with free elections, the People’s Action Party (PAP) has significant control and dominance in politics and society. The PAP has ruled the country since full internal self-government was achieved in 1959, and as of the 2020 general election, the PAP controls 83 out of 104 seats in Parliament, with 61.23% of the popular vote. As one of the five founding members of ASEAN, Singapore is also the headquarters of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) secretariat, and is the host city of many international conferences and events. Singapore is also a member of the United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO), East Asia Summit (EAS), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and the Commonwealth of Nations.
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Singapore’s Name and Etymology
The term “Singapore” (sin-ka-pho) is derived from the Hokkien transliteration of the English name “Singapore.” The English name, in turn, comes from the Malay “Singapura,” which originates from the Sanskrit “सिंहपुर” (IAST: Siṃhapura), where “siṃha” means lion and “pura” means city. Therefore, Singapore is also known as the “Lion City,” and its national emblem and the famous Merlion symbol are derived from this name. In the past, during the early days of its independence, Singapore was commonly referred to as “新嘉坡” (Xīnjiāpō).
In 1967, the Singapore government established the Committee on the Standardisation of Street Name Translations to standardise the names of places and streets in Singapore. On April 25, 1972, “新加坡” was officially adopted as the country’s Chinese translated name. Before Singapore’s independence, there were many derivative names for the country, such as “星嘉坡” (Xīngjiāpō), “星加坡” (Xīngjiāpō), “新架坡” (Xīnjiàpō), “星架坡” (Xīngjiàpō), “石叻” (Shílè), “叻埠” (Lèbù), “石叻埠” (Shílèbù), and “实叻埠” (Shílèbù). At the same time, the outside world commonly used “星洲” (Xīngzhōu), “狮城” (Shīchéng), or “星国” (Xīngguó) as abbreviations to refer to Singapore.
Early alternative names for Singapore include Temasek, as well as Xīnjiāpō, Xīngjiàpō, Xīngjiāpō, Xīngzhōu, Xīnggǎng, Xīngdǎo, Xīngguó, Shīchéng, Shílè, Shílèpō, Lèbù, and Shōnan, among others. The earliest name was “Pulau Ujong” (named in the 3rd century), which means “island at the end (of the Malay Peninsula)” in Malay.
During the Three Kingdoms period in China, Kang Tai of the Wu state wrote in his “Customs of Funan” after a mission to the countries of the South China Sea: “Going east from Kuli, at the very tip of the peninsula by the sea, there are inhabitants. These people all have tails five or six inches long, and are called Pulau Ujong. Their custom is to eat people.” According to Hsu Yun-tsiao in his “History of Malaya,” “Pulau Ujong” is a transliteration of the Malay “Pulau Ujong,” which means “extreme island nation,” consistent with the “at the very tip of the peninsula by the sea” mentioned in the records. Therefore, it was the name of Singapore at that time. Between 1999 and 2005, the official “Singapore Yearbook” also accepted this claim.
Before the establishment of the Kingdom of Singapura, the name Siṃhapura was used for many cities in the region. In Hindu-Buddhist culture, lions are associated with power and protection, which may explain the appeal of this name. Before the 15th century, Singapura replaced the name Temasek, after a Sumatran prince from Palembang (known to the Chinese as Jùgǎng or Jiùgǎng) established the Kingdom of Singapura on the island. However, the exact time and reason for the name change are unknown. According to the semi-historical Malay Annals, the 13th-century Sumatran prince from Bali, Sang Nila Utama, named Temasek Singapura. The annals state that Sang Nila Utama encountered a strange animal on the island, which he mistook for a lion. He saw this as an omen and established the town of Singapura at the spot where he met the beast. A second hypothesis, derived from Portuguese sources, suggests that this mythical story is based on the real life of Parameswara of Palembang. Parameswara declared independence from Majapahit and ascended a lion throne. After being exiled by the Javanese, he seized control of Temasek. It is possible that he renamed the area Singapura to commemorate the throne from which he was exiled.
During the Japanese occupation, Singapore was renamed Syonan (Japanese: 昭南), meaning “Light of the South”. Singapore is sometimes referred to as the “Garden City” due to its parks and tree-lined streets. Another informal name is the “Little Red Dot”, which originated from an article in the Asian Wall Street Journal on August 4, 1998, where Indonesian President B. J. Habibie referred to Singapore as a red dot on a map.
History of Singapore
According to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island in 1299 by Sang Nila Utama. Although the veracity of the accounts given in the Malay Annals is debated among scholars, it is known from various documents that Singapore in the 14th century (then known as Temasek) was a trading port under the influence of the Majapahit Empire and the Siamese dynasties, and was part of the Indosphere of Indianised kingdoms. These kingdoms were characterised by surprising resilience, political integrity, and administrative stability. Historical sources also indicate that towards the end of the 14th century, its ruler Parameswara was attacked by either the Majapahit or the Siamese, forcing him to move to Malacca where he founded the Sultanate of Malacca. Archaeological evidence suggests that the main settlement on Fort Canning Hill was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burnt down the settlement, and the island faded into obscurity for the next two centuries. By then, Singapore was nominally part of the Johor Sultanate. During the subsequent period, the wider maritime region and much of the trade were under Dutch control, following the Dutch conquest of Malacca.
British Colonisation of Singapore
The British governor Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore on 28 January 1819 and soon recognised the island as a natural choice for a new port. The island was then nominally ruled by the Sultan of Johor, Tengku Abdul Rahman, who was controlled by the Dutch and the Bugis. However, the Sultanate was weakened by factional division: the Temenggong of Johor, Abdul Rahman, and his officials were loyal to the Sultan’s elder brother Tengku Long, who was in exile on Penyengat Island in the Riau Islands. With the Temenggong’s help, Raffles managed to smuggle Tengku Long back into Singapore. Raffles offered to recognise Tengku Long as the rightful Sultan of Johor, under the title of Sultan Hussein, and provide him with a yearly payment of $5,000 and another $3,000 to the Temenggong; in return, Sultan Hussein would grant the British the right to establish a trading post on Singapore. A formal treaty was signed on 6 February 1819.
In 1824, a further treaty with the Sultan led to the entire island becoming a British possession. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India. Singapore became the regional capital in 1836. Before Raffles’s arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860, the population had increased to over 80,000, more than half of whom were Chinese. Many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations. In 1867, the Straits Settlements were separated from British India and came under the direct control of Britain. Later, in the 1890s, when the rubber industry became established in Malaya and Singapore, the island became a global centre for rubber sorting and export.
The First World War (1914–1918) did not greatly affect Singapore, as the conflict did not spread to Southeast Asia. The only significant event during the war was the 1915 Singapore Mutiny by Muslim sepoys from British India garrisoned in Singapore. After hearing rumours that they were to be sent to fight the Ottoman Empire, a Muslim state, the soldiers rebelled, killing their officers and several British civilians before being suppressed by non-Muslim forces sent from Johor and Burma.
After the First World War, the British built the large Singapore Naval Base as part of its defensive strategy. Originally announced in 1921, the construction of the base proceeded slowly until the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Costing $60 million and not fully completed in 1938, it was nonetheless the largest dry dock in the world, the third-largest floating dock, and had enough fuel tanks to support the entire British navy for six months. The base was defended by heavy 15-inch (380 mm) naval guns stationed at Fort Siloso, Fort Canning and Labrador, as well as a Royal Air Force airfield at Tengah Air Base. Winston Churchill touted it as the “Gibraltar of the East”, and military discussions often referred to the base simply as “East of Suez”. However, the British Home Fleet was stationed in Europe, and Britain could not afford to build a second fleet to protect its interests in Asia. The plan was for the Home Fleet to sail quickly to Singapore in the event of an emergency. As a consequence, after the Second World War broke out in 1939, the fleet was fully occupied with defending Britain, leaving Singapore vulnerable to Japanese invasion.
Second World War
During the Pacific War, the Japanese invasion of Malaya culminated in the Battle of Singapore. When the British force of 60,000 troops surrendered on 15 February 1942, British prime minister Winston Churchill called the defeat “the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history”. British and Commonwealth forces lost a total of nearly 85,000 personnel captured, in addition to losses during the earlier fighting in Malaya, of whom the Australians formed the vast majority. Japanese casualties during the fighting in Singapore were 1,714 killed and 3,378 wounded. The occupation was to become a major turning point in the histories of several nations, including those of Japan, Britain, and Singapore. Japanese newspapers triumphantly declared the victory as deciding the general situation of the war. Between 5,000 and 25,000 ethnic Chinese people were killed in the subsequent Sook Ching massacre. The British were planning to liberate Singapore in 1945; however, the war ended before these operations could be carried out.
Post-war Period in Singapore
After the Japanese surrender to the Allies on 15 August 1945, Singapore fell into a brief state of violence and disorder; looting and revenge-killing were widespread. British, Australian, and Indian troops led by Lord Louis Mountbatten returned to Singapore on 12 September 1945 to receive the formal surrender of the Japanese forces under General Seishirō Itagaki on behalf of General Hisaichi Terauchi. Meanwhile, Tomoyuki Yamashita was tried by a US military commission for war crimes, but not for crimes committed by his troops in Malaya or Singapore. He was convicted and hanged in the Philippines on 23 February 1946.
Much of Singapore’s infrastructure had been destroyed during the war, including the facilities needed to supply utilities. A food shortage led to malnutrition, disease, and rampant crime and violence. A series of strikes in 1947 caused massive stoppages in public transport and other services. However, by late 1947 the economy began to recover, facilitated by a growing international demand for tin and rubber. The failure of Britain to successfully defend its colony against the Japanese invasion changed the perception of Singaporeans. The British Military Administration ended on 1 April 1946, with Singapore becoming a separate Crown Colony. In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established and the election of six members of the Legislative Council was scheduled in the following year.
During the 1950s, Chinese communists with strong ties to the trade unions and Chinese schools waged a guerrilla war, leading to the Malayan Emergency. The 1954 National Service Riots, Hock Lee bus riots, and Chinese middle schools riots in Singapore were all linked to these events. The pro-independence leader David Marshall won Singapore’s first general election in 1955. He led a delegation to London but Britain rejected his demand for complete self-rule. He resigned and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock in 1956, and after further negotiations, Britain agreed to grant Singapore full internal self-government for all matters except defence and foreign affairs. During the subsequent May 1959 elections, the People’s Action Party (PAP) won a landslide victory. Governor Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode served as the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara (Head of State).
Singapore within Malaysia
The leaders of the People’s Action Party (PAP) believed that Singapore’s future was intertwined with Malaya, due to their strong ties. It was thought that reunification with Malaya would promote economic development by creating a common market, alleviating Singapore’s ongoing unemployment issues. However, a significant pro-communist faction within the PAP strongly opposed the merger, fearing a loss of influence, and thus split from the PAP to form the Barisan Sosialis. The ruling party of Malaya, the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), was staunchly anti-communist, and it was suspected that UMNO would support the non-communist factions of the PAP. UMNO was initially skeptical of the merger idea, distrusting the PAP government and concerned that Singapore’s large Chinese population would alter the racial balance of Malaysia, which their political power base depended on. But due to a shared fear of a communist takeover, UMNO began to support the idea of a merger.
On 27 May 1961, Malaya’s Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, made a surprise proposal for a new federation called Malaysia, which would unite the existing and former British territories in the region: the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Brunei, North Borneo, and Sarawak. UMNO leaders believed that the Malay population in the Bornean territories would balance Singapore’s Chinese population. The British government, in turn, believed that the merger would prevent Singapore from becoming a haven for communism. To gain a mandate for the merger, the PAP held a referendum on the merger. This referendum included different terms for a merger with Malaysia but did not have an option to completely avoid the merger. On 16 September 1963, Singapore joined with Malaya, North Borneo, and Sarawak to form the new Federation of Malaysia under the terms of the Malaysia Agreement. Under this agreement, Singapore had a relatively high level of autonomy compared to the other states of Malaysia.
Indonesia opposed the formation of Malaysia due to its own claims over Borneo and launched the “Konfrontasi” (Indonesian for Confrontation) in response. On 10 March 1965, a bomb planted by Indonesian saboteurs on the mezzanine floor of MacDonald House exploded, killing three people and injuring 33. This was the deadliest of at least 42 bomb incidents that occurred during the Confrontation. Two members of the Indonesian Marine Corps, Osman Haji Mohammed Ali and Harun Said, were eventually convicted and executed for the crime. The explosion caused US$250,000 in damage to MacDonald House.
Even after the merger, the Singapore government and the Malaysian central government still had disagreements on many political and economic issues. Despite an agreement to establish a common market, Singapore continued to face restrictions in its trade with the rest of Malaysia. In retaliation, Singapore did not fully extend the loans agreed upon for the economic development of Sarawak and Sabah. Soon, negotiations broke down, and both sides began to exchange harsh words and writings. This led to communal strife in Singapore, culminating in the 1964 race riots. On 7 August 1965, Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, to avoid further bloodshed (and with the help of secret negotiations by PAP leaders, a fact revealed in 2015), advised the Malaysian Parliament to vote to expel Singapore from Malaysia. On 9 August 1965, the Malaysian Parliament, by a vote of 126 to 0, passed a constitutional amendment bill that expelled Singapore from Malaysia, making Singapore a newly independent nation.
Republic of Singapore
After its expulsion from Malaysia, Singapore became the independent Republic of Singapore on 9 August 1965, with Lee Kuan Yew and Yusof bin Ishak as its first prime minister and president, respectively. In 1967, the country co-founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Race riots broke out once more in 1969. Lee Kuan Yew’s emphasis on rapid economic growth, support for business entrepreneurship, and limitations on internal democracy shaped Singapore’s policies for the next half-century. Economic growth continued through the 1980s, with the unemployment rate falling to 3% and real GDP growth averaging at about 8% up until 1999. During the 1980s, Singapore began to shift towards high-tech industries, such as wafer fabrication, in order to remain competitive as neighbouring countries began manufacturing with cheaper labour. Singapore Changi Airport was opened in 1981 and Singapore Airlines was formed. The Port of Singapore became one of the world’s busiest ports and the service and tourism industries also grew immensely during this period.
The People’s Action Party, which has been in power since independence, has been considered by some activists and opposition politicians to rule in an authoritarian manner, who argue that the government’s strict regulation of political and media activities infringes on political rights. In response, Singapore has seen several significant political changes, such as the introduction of Non-Constituency Members of Parliament in 1984, allowing up to three losing candidates from opposition parties to be appointed as MPs. Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs) were introduced in 1988 to create multi-seat electoral divisions, intended to ensure minority representation in parliament. The Nominated Member of Parliament scheme was introduced in 1990 to allow non-elected, non-partisan MPs. In 1991, the Constitution was amended to provide for an elected president who has veto power over the use of past reserves and appointments to certain public offices.
In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee Kuan Yew as Singapore’s second prime minister. During Goh’s tenure, the country experienced the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 2003 SARS outbreak. In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the country’s third prime minister. Lee Hsien Loong’s tenure included the 2008 global financial crisis, the resolution of a dispute over land ownership of the Tanjong Pagar railway station between Singapore and Malaysia, and the introduction of two integrated resorts (IRs), located at Marina Bay Sands and Resorts World Sentosa. In 2011, the PAP achieved its worst-ever election result, winning only 60% of the vote, sparking debate on issues such as the influx of foreign workers and the high cost of living. On 23 March 2015, Lee Kuan Yew passed away, and a week-long period of public mourning was observed nationwide. Subsequently, the PAP regained its dominance in parliament in the September general election, securing 69.9% of the popular vote, although this was still lower than the 75.3% in 2001 and 86.7% in 1968. In the election held in July 2020, the PAP’s vote share dropped to 61%, while the Workers’ Party won 10 out of 93 seats, the highest number of seats won by an opposition party.
Government and Politics of Singapore
Singapore is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system. The Constitution of Singapore is the supreme law of the country, establishing the structure and responsibility of government. The president is head of state, exercising many executive powers on the advice of the cabinet, with some exceptions, including the appointment of the prime minister and refusing a request to dissolve parliament. The prime minister is the head of government, appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. The cabinet is composed of the prime minister and other ministers appointed by the president, whose appointment is made on the prime minister’s advice.
Singapore’s governance is divided into three branches:
- Executive branch: The president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, can veto laws before they become effective (subject to parliamentary override), and has limited oversight of the government. The cabinet has overall direction and control of the government and is collectively responsible to Parliament.
- Legislative branch: The president gives assent to bills (draft laws) passed by Parliament. The president can refuse to give assent to certain bills. The unicameral Parliament makes laws, approves budgets, and checks on government policy. Parliament can override a presidential refusal to give assent to certain bills.
- Judicial branch: The Supreme Court and State Courts adjudicate in civil disputes between people, convict or acquit defendants in criminal prosecutions, and interpret laws to decide on their constitutionality. Any law or provision of a law found by the Supreme Court to be unconstitutional can be struck down.
The president is directly elected by public vote for a renewable six-year term. The requirements for this position, set by the PAP government, are very strict, such that only a handful of people qualify as candidates. These qualifications include the candidate being at least 45 years old, no longer a member of a political party, having either held office in some specific public service leadership roles for the past 3 years, or been the chief executive officer of a private sector company for 3 years with shareholder equity of at least S$500 million, having lived in Singapore for at least 10 years, having no criminal record, and so on. The candidate must also satisfy the Presidential Elections Committee (PEC) that he or she is a person of integrity, good character, and reputation.
The constitution stipulates that the presidential election should be “reserved” for a racial community if no one from that community has been elected president in the last five terms. Only members of that community are eligible to be candidates in a reserved presidential election. In the 2017 presidential election, these strict requirements and the reserved election for a candidate from the Malay community, which makes up 13% of the population, resulted in only one person qualifying to run for president; Halimah Yacob, considered part of the Malay community, won the election uncontested. She also became Singapore’s first female president.
Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected at least every five years (or earlier through snap elections). The current 14th Parliament has 103 members; 93 are directly elected from 31 constituencies, 9 are non-partisan Nominated Members appointed by the president, and 3 are opposition Non-constituency Members from opposition parties who were not elected in the last general election but were appointed to the legislature to increase opposition representation. In Group Representation Constituencies (GRCs), political parties form teams of candidates (rather than nominate individuals) to run for elections. At least one MP in each GRC must be of a minority background. All elections are conducted using the first-past-the-post system. MPs hold weekly political surgeries, known as Meet-the-People Sessions, where they help constituents with personal issues, which can be related to housing, financial assistance, and immigration.
The People’s Action Party is dominant in Singaporean politics, having won a large parliamentary majority in every election since gaining self-governance in 1959. The PAP describes itself as pragmatic, with an ideology that blends free-market principles, civic nationalism, and welfarism. Despite restrictions on civil liberties, the Singapore economy has continued to grow under the PAP’s leadership, along with political stability. Even losing PAP candidates are often sought for assistance by their constituency residents. The most represented and popular opposition party is the Workers’ Party.
The judicial system is based on English common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule with substantial local differences. Criminal law is based on the Indian Penal Code originally designed for British India, and was adopted by the British colonial authorities in Singapore during its time as a Crown Colony, and remains the basis of the country’s criminal law, although with some exceptions, amendments, and repeals since its implementation. Trial by jury was abolished in 1970. Corporal punishment (caning) and capital punishment (hanging) are both legal penalties.
Article 14(1) of the Constitution of Singapore guarantees the rights to freedom of speech and association, although there are provisions for them in the subsequent subsection (2) of the same article. The government has attempted to restrict freedom of speech and the press, as well as some civil and political rights. In 2022, Reporters Without Borders ranked Singapore 139th out of 180 countries on the Press Freedom Index. Freedom House has ranked Singapore as “partly free” in its Freedom in the World report, and The Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Singapore as a “flawed democracy”, second in its “Democracy Index”. All public gatherings of five or more people require a police permit, and protests are only legally allowed at the Speakers’ Corner. In 2021, six individuals protested outside the Ministry of Education headquarters, demanding more support for transgender and gender-nonconforming students in the school system. They were warned that the protest was considered unauthorized as it was not held at the Speakers’ Corner.
In the “Corruption Perceptions Index,” which ranks countries according to “the perceived level of public sector corruption,” Singapore has consistently been considered one of the least corrupt countries. Singapore’s unique combination of a strong, almost authoritarian government with an emphasis on meritocracy and good governance, known as the “Singapore model,” is considered a key factor behind its political stability, economic growth, and harmonious social order. In 2021, the World Justice Project’s Rule of Law Index ranked Singapore 17th globally among 193 countries for adherence to the rule of law. Singapore ranks high on factors such as order and security (#3), absence of corruption (#3), regulatory enforcement (#4), civil justice (#8), and criminal justice (#7), and ranks significantly lower on factors such as open government (#34), constraints on government powers (#32), and fundamental rights (#38).
Foreign Relations of Singapore
Singapore’s stated foreign policy priority is maintaining security in Southeast Asia and its surrounding territories. Its fundamental principle is the political and economic stability of the region. Singapore has established diplomatic relations with more than 180 sovereign states.
As one of the five founding members of ASEAN, Singapore is a strong supporter of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the ASEAN Investment Area (AIA); at the same time, it is also the host of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Secretariat. Singapore maintains membership in other regional organizations, such as the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM), the Forum for East Asia-Latin America Cooperation (FEALAC), the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA), and the East Asia Summit (EAS). It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the United Nations (UN), and the Commonwealth of Nations. Although Singapore is not a formal member of the G20, it has been invited to participate in the G20 process most years since 2010. Singapore is also the home of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) Secretariat.
In general, Singapore’s bilateral relations with other ASEAN member states are strong; however, disagreements have arisen, and relations with neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia have at times been strained. Malaysia and Singapore have clashed over the issue of Singapore’s freshwater supply and the use of Malaysian airspace by the Singapore Armed Forces. There are boundary issues with Malaysia and Indonesia, and both countries have banned the sale of sea sand to Singapore due to disputes over Singapore’s land reclamation. Some previous disputes, such as the Pedra Branca dispute, have been resolved by the International Court of Justice. Piracy in the Strait of Malacca has been a concern for all three countries. There are close economic ties with Brunei, and the two countries share a fixed currency value through a currency interchangeability agreement, making the Brunei dollar and Singapore dollar banknotes and coins legal tender in both countries.
Singapore’s first diplomatic contacts with China occurred in the 1970s, with full diplomatic relations established in the 1990s. Since surpassing Malaysia in 2013, China has been Singapore’s largest trading partner. Singapore has a long-standing close relationship with the United States, particularly in defence, economy, health, and education. Singapore has also strengthened its cooperation with ASEAN member states and China to enhance regional security and combat terrorism, and in 2018 participated in the first joint ASEAN-China maritime military exercise. It has also supported the US-led counter-terrorism coalition, cooperating through bilateral counter-terrorism and anti-proliferation initiatives and joint military exercises.
Because Singapore has established diplomatic relations with both the United States and North Korea, and is one of the few countries with relations with both, it hosted the historic summit between US President Donald Trump and North Korean leader Kim Jong-un in June 2018, the first-ever meeting between leaders of the two countries. Singapore also hosted the Ma-Xi meeting in 2015, the first meeting between the political leaders of both sides of the Taiwan Strait since the political division in 1949.
Military of Singapore
The Singaporean military, arguably the most advanced in Southeast Asia, comprises the Army, Navy, Air Force, and the Digital and Intelligence Service. It is seen as the guarantor of the country’s independence, a point that is embodied in Singaporean culture, involving all citizens in the nation’s defence. The government’s spending on the military is 4.9% of GDP, which is high for the region, and one in every four dollars of government spending is on defence.
After Singapore’s independence, there were only two infantry regiments commanded by British officers. Considering this too small to provide effective security for the new nation, the development of the military became a priority. In addition, in October 1971, Britain withdrew its military from Singapore, leaving only a small contingent of British, Australian, and New Zealand troops as a symbolic military presence. The initial substantial support came from Israel, a country not recognised by Singapore’s Muslim-majority neighbours Malaysia and Indonesia. The commanders of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) were commissioned by the Singaporean government to create the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) from scratch, and Israeli instructors were brought in to train Singaporean soldiers. Military courses were conducted according to the IDF’s format, and Singapore adopted a system of conscription and reserve service based on the Israeli model. Singapore still maintains strong security relations with Israel and is one of the biggest buyers of Israeli arms and weapons systems, with a recent example being the MATADOR anti-tank weapon.
The SAF is being developed to respond to a wide range of issues in both conventional and unconventional warfare. The Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA) is responsible for procuring resources for the military. Singapore’s geographical constraints mean that the SAF must plan to fully repulse an attack, as they cannot fall back and reorganise. The small size of the population has also affected the way the SAF is designed, with a small active-duty force and a large number of reserves.
Singapore has a conscription system for all able-bodied males at the age of 18, with the exception of those with a criminal record or who can prove that their loss would bring hardship to their families. Males who have not completed pre-university education, who are awarded a Public Service Commission (PSC) scholarship, or who are pursuing a local medical degree can opt to defer their enlistment. Although women are not required to serve in the military, the number of women in the SAF has been increasing: since 1989, they have been allowed to fill military vocations formerly reserved for men. Before being assigned to a specific military unit, recruits undergo at least nine weeks of basic military training.
Due to the scarcity of open land on the main island, training involving activities such as live-firing and amphibious warfare is often conducted on smaller islands, which are usually off-limits to civilians. However, large-scale exercises, considered too dangerous to be held in the country, have been conducted in other countries such as Taiwan, Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand, and the United States. In general, military exercises are held with foreign forces once or twice a week. Due to airspace and land constraints, the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) maintains a number of overseas bases in Australia, the United States, and France. The RSAF’s 130 Squadron is based at RAAF Base Pearce in Western Australia, and its 126 Squadron is based at the Oakey Army Aviation Centre in Queensland. The RSAF has one squadron – 150 Squadron – based in Cazaux Air Base in southern France. The RSAF’s overseas detachments in the United States are: Luke Air Force Base in Arizona, Marana in Arizona, Mountain Home Air Force Base in Idaho, and Andersen Air Force Base in Guam.
The SAF has sent forces to assist in operations abroad, such as in Iraq and Afghanistan, in both military and civilian roles. In the region, they helped stabilise East Timor and provided aid to Aceh in Indonesia after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Since 2009, the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN) has deployed vessels to the Gulf of Aden as part of Task Force 151 to assist in anti-piracy operations. The SAF also provided relief during Hurricane Katrina and Typhoon Haiyan. Singapore is part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA), a military alliance with Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In 2022, the country was ranked the ninth most peaceful country on the Global Peace Index.
Human Rights in Singapore
In Singapore, the death penalty is a legal and enforced punishment. Singapore is one of four countries in the developed world that still retains the death penalty, the other three being the United States, Japan, and Taiwan. The use of the death penalty for drug trafficking has been a point of contention with various non-governmental organizations, with some arguing that it is a victimless crime. The government has responded that it has “no doubt” this is the right policy and that there is “clear evidence” of a strong deterrent effect, and the law should be viewed in the context of “saving lives.” Amnesty International has stated that some of Singapore’s laws on the death penalty conflict with the “right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty.” The government has disputed Amnesty International’s claims, stating that its “position on the abolition of the death penalty is by no means internationally undisputed” and that the report contains “serious factual errors and misrepresentations.”
From 1938 to 2022, sexual relations between men were technically illegal under Section 377A of the Penal Code, first introduced during British colonial rule. In recent decades, this law was not enforced, and as understanding of homosexuality grew, pressure to repeal it increased. Meanwhile, sexual relations between women have always been legal. In 2022, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that Singapore would completely repeal Section 377A, effectively decriminalising homosexual acts. However, he added that the repeal would not affect the recognition of “traditional family and social norms,” including how marriage is defined—for now, the legalisation of same-sex marriage is on hold, though the possibility of civil unions has not been formally ruled out. He added that this was a compromise between the conservative (often religious) and progressive elements of Singaporean society to prevent social division.
The Pink Dot SG rally is an event that supports the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community, and has attracted thousands of participants annually since 2009, with attendance increasing each year. According to a 2019 survey by the Institute of Policy Studies, Singaporean society has become more liberal on LGBT rights. In the survey, over 20% of people said that same-sex sexual relations are not wrong at all or most of the time, up from 10% in 2013. The survey found that 27% of people held the same view on same-sex marriage (up from 15% in 2013), and 30% held the same view on same-sex couples adopting children (up from 24% in 2013). In 2021, six Singaporeans protested outside the Ministry of Education headquarters, demanding better transgender protection in the education system.
Pimps often traffic women from neighbouring countries, such as Malaysia and Vietnam, to their brothels, as well as rental apartments and hotels. They take a portion of the income from clients to make a higher profit. In response, the government amended the Women’s Charter in 2019 to legislate more severe penalties for traffickers, including up to seven years in prison and a fine of S$100,000.
Abortion has been legal in Singapore since 1969 and can be performed on request.
Economy of Singapore
Singapore has a highly developed market economy, historically based on extended entrepôt trade. Along with Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan, Singapore is one of the Four Asian Tigers, and has surpassed its peers in terms of GDP per capita. Between 1965 and 1995, growth rates averaged around 6 percent per annum, transforming the living standards of the population.
The Singaporean economy is regarded as free, innovative, dynamic, and business-friendly. For several years, Singapore has been one of the few countries with a AAA credit rating from the big three rating agencies, and is the only Asian country to have achieved this rating. Due to its geographical location, skilled workforce, low tax rates, advanced infrastructure, and zero tolerance for corruption, Singapore has attracted a large amount of foreign investment. According to the World Economic Forum’s ranking of 141 countries, Singapore was the most competitive economy in the world in 2019, with the second-highest GDP per capita. Approximately 44% of Singapore’s workforce is composed of non-Singaporeans. Despite its market freedom, the Singapore government’s operations account for 22% of GDP. The city is a popular location for conferences and events.
Singapore’s currency is the Singapore dollar (SGD or S$), issued by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS). It has been interchangeable with the Brunei dollar at par since 1967. The MAS manages its monetary policy by allowing the Singapore dollar exchange rate to rise or fall within an undisclosed trade-weighted band. This is different from most central banks, which use interest rates to manage policy. Singapore has the world’s eleventh largest foreign reserves, and one of the highest net international investment positions per capita.
Singapore is considered a tax haven for the wealthy due to its low personal income tax rates and tax exemptions on foreign income and capital gains. Zhang Yong, the founder of the popular hotpot chain Haidilao, and Eduardo Saverin, the billionaire co-founder of Facebook, are examples of wealthy individuals who have settled in Singapore. In 2009, Singapore was removed from the OECD’s “grey list” of tax havens and was ranked fourth on the Tax Justice Network’s 2015 Financial Secrecy Index of global offshore financial service providers, accounting for an eighth of the world’s offshore capital, while “providing numerous tax avoidance and evasion opportunities.” In August 2016, The Straits Times reported that Indonesia had decided to create tax havens on two islands near Singapore to bring Indonesian capital back into its tax base. In October 2016, the Monetary Authority of Singapore issued warnings and fines to UBS and DBS, and revoked the banking license of Falcon Private Bank for their alleged roles in the Malaysian sovereign fund scandal.
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Singapore has the highest concentration of millionaires in the world, with one in six households having at least one million US dollars in disposable wealth. This does not include property, business, and luxury goods, which if included would increase the number of millionaires, especially since property in Singapore is among the world’s most expensive. In 2016, Singapore was rated the world’s most expensive city for the third consecutive year by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), which remained true in 2022. The government provides many assistance programs for the homeless and needy through the Ministry of Social and Family Development, so severe poverty is rare. Some programs include financial assistance for needy families, free healthcare in government hospitals, and paying for children’s school fees. Other benefits include subsidised gym fees to encourage citizens to exercise, a baby bonus of up to S$166,000 per citizen, heavily subsidised healthcare, financial aid for the disabled, low-cost laptops for poor students, rebates on public transport and utility bills, and more. As of 2018, Singapore ranked twelfth globally on the Human Development Index (HDI), with an HDI value of 0.939.
Geography of Singapore
Singapore consists of 63 islands, including the main island, also known as Pulau Ujong. There are two man-made connections to Johor, Malaysia: the Johor–Singapore Causeway in the north and the Tuas Second Link in the west. Jurong Island, Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin, and Sentosa are the larger of Singapore’s smaller islands. The highest natural point is Bukit Timah Hill at 163.63 m (537 ft). Under British rule, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were part of Singapore, but both were transferred to Australia in 1957. Pedra Branca is the nation’s easternmost point.
Land reclamation projects have increased Singapore’s land area from 580 km2 (220 sq mi) in the 1960s to 710 km2 (270 sq mi) in 2015, an increase of about 22% (130 km2). The country is projected to reclaim another 56 km2 (20 sq mi). Some projects involve merging smaller islands through land reclamation to form larger, more functional, and habitable islands, as has been done with Jurong Island. The type of sand used for reclamation is found in rivers and on beaches, rather than in deserts, and is in high demand globally. In 2010, Singapore imported nearly 15 million tonnes of sand for its projects, and the demand is so high that Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam have all restricted or banned the export of sand to Singapore in recent years. As a result, in 2016 Singapore switched to using polders for reclamation, where an area is enclosed and then pumped dry.
Nature Reserves in Singapore
Singapore’s urbanisation means that it has lost 95% of its historical forests, and now over half of the naturally occurring fauna and flora in Singapore is present in nature reserves, such as the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and the Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, which comprise only 0.25% of Singapore’s land area. In 1967, to combat this decline in natural space, the government introduced the vision of making Singapore a “garden city”, aiming to improve quality of life. Since then, nearly 10% of Singapore’s land has been set aside for parks and nature reserves. The government has created plans to preserve the country’s remaining wildlife. Singapore’s most famous garden is the Singapore Botanic Gardens, a 161-year-old tropical garden and Singapore’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Climate of Singapore
Singapore has a tropical rainforest climate with no distinctive seasons, uniform temperature and pressure, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. Temperatures usually range from 23 to 32 °C (73 to 90 °F). While temperature does not vary greatly throughout the year, there is a wetter monsoon season from November to February.
From July to October, there is often haze caused by bush fires from neighbouring Indonesia, usually from Sumatra. Singapore follows the GMT+8 time zone, one hour ahead of the typical zone for its geographical location. This causes the sun to rise and set particularly late in February, with the sun rising at 7:15 AM and setting at around 7:20 PM. In July, the sun sets at around 7:15 PM. The earliest sunrise and sunset is in late October and early November when the sun rises at 6:46 AM and sets at 6:50 PM.
Singapore recognises that climate change and rising sea levels in the coming decades will have a significant impact on its low-lying coastline. It estimates that the country will need to spend S$100 billion over the next century to address this issue. In its 2020 budget, the government allocated an initial S$5 billion for a Coastline and Flood Protection Fund. Singapore is the first country in Southeast Asia to impose a carbon tax on its largest carbon-emitting companies, which produce more than 25,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year, at S$5 per tonne.
To reduce the country’s reliance on fossil fuels, it has ramped up the deployment of solar panels on the rooftops and vertical surfaces of buildings, and has taken other measures such as building one of the world’s largest floating solar farms at Tengeh Reservoir in Tuas.
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Water Supply in Singapore
Singapore considers water a national security issue, and the government has consistently emphasised water conservation. Singapore’s water supply is universal and of high quality, but the country is projected to face severe water stress by 2040. To address this, the Public Utilities Board (PUB) has implemented the “Four National Taps” strategy – importing water from neighboring Malaysia, urban rainwater catchments, NEWater, and desalination. Singapore’s approach not only relies on physical infrastructure but also emphasizes proper legislation and enforcement, water pricing, public education, and research and development. Singapore has declared that it will achieve water self-sufficiency by the time its long-term water supply agreement with Malaysia expires in 2061. However, according to official forecasts, Singapore’s water demand is expected to double from 380 to 760 million US gallons per day (1.4 to 2.8 billion liters; 1.4 to 2.8 million cubic meters) between 2010 and 2060. This increase is expected to come mainly from non-domestic water use, which accounted for 55% of water demand in 2010 and is projected to account for 70% by 2060. By then, it is expected that 50% of water demand will be met by NEWater and 30% by desalination, while internal catchments can only provide 20% of the supply.
Singapore is expanding its recycling system and plans to invest S$10 billion in upgrading its water treatment infrastructure. The Ulu Pandan wastewater treatment facility, built specifically to test advanced wastewater treatment processes before full-scale deployment, won the Water/Wastewater Project of the Year award at the Global Water Awards in Paris, France in 2018. The project began operations in 2017 and was jointly developed by the Public Utilities Board and a Black & Veatch + AECOM joint venture.
Transport in Singapore
Land Transport
Singapore’s road system covers 3,356 kilometers (2,085 miles), including 161 kilometers (100 miles) of expressways. The Area Licensing Scheme, implemented in 1975, became the world’s first congestion pricing scheme, and included other complementary measures such as strict car ownership quotas and improvements in mass transit. Upgraded in 1998 and renamed Electronic Road Pricing (ERP), the system introduced electronic tolling, electronic detection, and video surveillance technology. The plan to replace the physical gantries with a satellite-based system in 2020 has been delayed to 2026 due to the global semiconductor supply shortage. As Singapore is a small island with a high population density, the number of private cars on the road is restricted by a preset vehicle population quota to curb pollution and traffic congestion. Car buyers must pay a tax for an Additional Registration Fee (ARF), at a rate of 100%, 140%, 180%, or 220% of the car’s Open Market Value (OMV), and must bid for a Singaporean Certificate of Entitlement (COE) (the supply of which varies twice a month based on the number of car registrations and de-registrations), which allows a car to be driven on the road for a maximum of 10 years. Like most Commonwealth countries, vehicles on the road and pedestrians keep to the left.
Singapore’s public transport network consists of trains (including Mass Rapid Transit and Light Rail Transit systems), buses, and taxis. There are currently six MRT lines (North-South Line, East-West Line, North-East Line, Circle Line, Downtown Line and Thomson-East Coast Line), three LRT lines serving the communities of Bukit Panjang and Choa Chu Kang (Bukit Panjang LRT), Sengkang and Punggol (Sengkang-Punggol LRT), and over 300 bus routes in operation. Taxis are a popular form of transport as taxi fares are relatively reasonable compared to many other developed countries, while cars in Singapore are the most expensive in the world.
The Johor-Singapore Causeway (connecting Singapore and Johor Bahru, Malaysia) is the world’s busiest international land border crossing, with about 350,000 travellers passing through the Woodlands Checkpoint and Sultan Iskandar Building border checkpoints daily (an annual total of 128 million).
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) of Singapore is responsible for all infrastructure and operations related to land transport in Singapore.
Air Transport
Singapore is a major international transport hub in Asia, serving some of the busiest sea and air trade routes. Changi Airport is the aviation hub for Southeast Asia and a stopover on the Kangaroo Route for Qantas from Sydney to London. Singapore has two civilian airports, Singapore Changi Airport and Seletar Airport. The Changi Airport network covers over 100 airlines, connecting Singapore to more than 300 cities in about 70 countries and territories worldwide. It has consistently been rated one of the best international airports by international travel magazines, including being rated as the world’s best airport for the first time in 2006 by the aviation consultancy Skytrax. Singapore Changi Airport also possesses the world’s second and third busiest international routes; in 2018, the Jakarta-Singapore airport pair carried 4.8 million passengers, while the Singapore-Kuala Lumpur airport pair carried 4.5 million passengers, both second only to Hong Kong-Taipei (6.5 million).
Singapore Airlines is the national airline of Singapore, rated as a five-star airline by Skytrax, and has been listed among the top ten airlines in the world for many years. Between 2013 and 2020, Changi Airport was also consistently rated the world’s best airport, until it was surpassed by Hamad International Airport in Doha.
Maritime Transport
The Port of Singapore, managed by port operators PSA International and Jurong Port, was the world’s second-busiest port in 2019 by shipping tonnage handled (2.85 billion gross tons) and container traffic (37.2 million twenty-foot equivalent units). In terms of cargo tonnage, the Port of Singapore was the second-busiest in the world with 626 million tonnes handled, second only to Shanghai. Additionally, the Port of Singapore is the world’s busiest for transshipment traffic and the world’s largest bunkering centre.
Industry Sectors in Singapore
Singapore is the world’s third-largest foreign exchange centre, third-largest financial centre, third-largest gambling market, a top-three oil-refining and trading hub, the largest producer of oil rigs and ship repair services, and the largest logistics hub. Singapore’s economy is diversified, with major contributors being financial services, manufacturing, and oil refining. Its main exports are refined petroleum, integrated circuits, and computers, which accounted for 27% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2010. Other important industries include electronics, chemicals, mechanical engineering, and biomedical sciences. In 2022, Singapore ranked seventh in the Global Innovation Index. In 2019, Singapore had over 60 semiconductor companies, which together accounted for 11% of the global market share. The semiconductor industry alone contributed about 7% to Singapore’s GDP.
Singapore’s largest companies are mainly in telecommunications, banking, transportation, and manufacturing, many of which started as state-owned statutory boards and were later listed on the Singapore Exchange. These companies include Singtel, ST Engineering, Keppel Corporation, OCBC Bank, DBS Bank, and United Overseas Bank (UOB). In 2011, amidst the global financial crisis, OCBC, DBS, and UOB were ranked by Bloomberg Businessweek as the world’s first, fifth, and sixth strongest banks, respectively. Singapore is home to three Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest in the region.
The country’s most well-known global brands include Singapore Airlines, Changi Airport, and the Port of Singapore, all of which are the most acclaimed in their respective fields. Singapore Airlines was ranked as Asia’s most admired company and the world’s 19th most admired company in Fortune magazine’s annual “World’s 50 Most Admired Companies” industry survey in 2015. It has also won other awards, including the Best International Airline award from the US-based Travel + Leisure magazine, which Singapore Airlines has won for 20 consecutive years. Changi Airport connects over 100 airlines and more than 300 cities. This strategic international aviation hub has received over 480 world’s best airport awards as of 2015, and is known as the world’s most awarded airport. Singapore has signed more than ten free trade agreements with other countries and regions. Singapore is the second-largest foreign investor in India. Singapore is the world’s 14th largest exporter and 15th largest importer.
Tourism in Singapore
Tourism is a major industry and contributor to Singapore’s economy, attracting 18.5 million international tourists in 2018, a number more than three times Singapore’s total population. Singapore is the fifth most visited city in the world and the second in the Asia-Pacific region. In 2019, tourism directly contributed about 4% to Singapore’s GDP, a decrease from 2016 when tourism directly and indirectly contributed about 9.9% to Singapore’s GDP. Overall, the industry provided about 8.6% of Singapore’s employment in 2016.
In 2015, Lonely Planet and The New York Times listed Singapore as their best and sixth-best world travel destination, respectively. Notable landmarks include the Merlion, Esplanade – Theatres on the Bay, Marina Bay Sands, Gardens by the Bay, Jewel Changi Airport, CHIJMES, National Gallery Singapore, Singapore Flyer, the Orchard Road shopping belt, the resort island of Sentosa, and the Singapore Botanic Gardens, Singapore’s first UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Singapore Tourism Board (STB) is a statutory board under the Ministry of Trade and Industry responsible for promoting the country’s tourism industry. In August 2017, the STB and the Economic Development Board (EDB) launched a unified brand, “Singapore, Passion Made Possible,” to promote Singapore’s tourism and business internationally. The Orchard Road district, which contains multi-storey shopping centres and hotels, can be considered the shopping and tourism hub of Singapore. Other popular tourist attractions include the Singapore Zoo, River Wonders, and the Night Safari. The Singapore Zoo has adopted the open zoo concept where animals are kept in enclosures, separated from visitors by hidden dry or wet moats, instead of caging the animals, and River Wonders has 300 species of animals, including many endangered species. Singapore promotes itself as a medical tourism hub, with about 200,000 foreigners seeking medical care there each year. Singapore’s medical services aim to serve at least one million foreign patients annually and generate US$3 billion in revenue.
Demographics of Singapore
As of mid-2022, Singapore’s estimated population was 5,637,000, of whom 3,553,700 (63%) were citizens, and the remaining 2,083,300 (37%) were permanent residents (519,500) or international students, foreign workers, or dependants (1,563,800). According to the country’s June 2021 census, nearly 16.8% of Singapore’s residents (i.e., citizens and permanent residents) were foreign-born; if non-residents are included, nearly 45% of the total population is foreign-born.
In the 2022 census, about 74.1% of residents were Chinese, 13.6% were Malay, 9% were Indian, and 3.3% were of other (including Eurasian) descent. Before 2010, each person could only register as a member of one race, defaulting to the father’s race; thus, mixed-race individuals could only be classified under their father’s race in government censuses. From 2010, people could register using a multi-racial classification, where they could choose one primary race and one secondary race, but no more than two.
In 2022, the median age of Singaporean residents was 42.1 years, and the total fertility rate was estimated at 1.04 children per woman, one of the lowest in the world and far below the 2.1 needed to maintain population replacement. The government has attempted to increase the fertility rate with limited success, as well as adjusting immigration policies to maintain its working-age population.
89.3% of resident households own the homes they live in, and the average household size is 3.09 persons. However, due to land scarcity, 77.9% of resident households live in subsidised public housing apartments developed by the Housing & Development Board (HDB). Additionally, 71% of resident households live in HDB flats or private properties that are equivalent to or larger than four-room flats (i.e., three bedrooms plus a living room). It is common for foreign domestic workers to live in homes in Singapore, and as of December 2022, there were approximately 268,500 foreign domestic workers in Singapore.
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